Innovation and Repetition in Business Management

The core definition of business is "the condition of being busy". In other words, business is about activity - the perfomance of actions. Each action we do falls into one of two basic groups: actions that we have done before, and actions that we do for the first time. The former group in turn falls into two groups: those that we do regularly (i.e. repeated actions), and those that we do a few times and then stop. The latter group again falls into two groups: those that are unique - we do them once and never again; and those that are the initial action in a series of actions (i.e repetitions of that action). There is a third group of actions worth mentioning, consisting of actions contemplated but not carried out - potential actions.

In summary, the three types of action may be characterised as:

• repetitive actions;
• unique actions; and
• potential actions.

One of the key tasks of management is managing action episodes and series of repeated actions - deciding which actions should be performed once, which should be performed repetitively, and which should not be performed at all, and then ensuring that these decisions on actions are implemented.

Repetition has been fundamental to the development of business over the last 250 years. The industrial revolution got going because of what Adam Smith called the "division of labour". That is, the division of large tasks carried out in varied fashions into small tasks carried out repetitively according to a tightly defined method. And as the nineteenth century wore on, the standardisation of parts (screws and screw threads, for example) - i.e. parts manufactured repetitively in a controlled environment to close tolerences - enabled the rapid construction of ever-more-complex machines. These two innovations, with the addition of mechanical power to supplement human muscle, drove the industrial revolution.

In the second half of the twentieth century, the continued breaking down of complex tasks into ever-smaller repetitive steps enabled computers to be brought in to control and carry out the repetitive steps. And today with the application of management theories such as TQM and Six Sigma, the goal of breaking down tasks into smaller and smaller repeated steps is almost reaching its ultimate conclusion in the production of processes and products that repeat almost infinitely without defects.

It is interesting to note that in the biological world repetition plays a defining role. Evolution itself has been defined as "replication with modification". In other words, the DNA code in biological entities replicates itself from one generation to the next (i.e. it repeats the same code in each generation) with the occasional "accidental" modification, where the code doesn't get repeated exactly, but contains a minor "error".

What drives biological evolution, therefore, is repetition with the occasional change to that repetition. As described above, these modifications can be either unique (the DNA mutation is not conducive to survival and the entity dies at some point before reproduction) or they can initiate the start of a new repetitive series (the DNA mutation is conducive to survival and the entity goes on to reproduce and successive generations continue to reproduce).

Unlike evolutionary repetition with modification, in business we do not rely on chance modifications to make progress; we can intelligently assess which actions should be repeated, which actions should be terminated, which actions should be modified and which actions should be abandoned before being initiated. The judgement of which of these to do in what circumstances is a key task of management.

A lesson to be drawn from biology, and the history of economic development, is that repetition is the norm and the best way to make progress most of the time. Repetition enables:

• control and administrative systems to be developed to handle activities;
  
  
• planning for the future (repeated series of events are predictable);
  
  
• efficiency savings through refinement of the repeated events to closer and closer tolerances;
  
  
• the bringing in of machines (including computers) to perform tightly defined repetitive tasks;
  
  
• improvements in human performance through humans doing the same thing again and again and therefore learning to do them better; and
  
  
• improvements in human performance through psychological adjustment to, and acceptance of, boring and/or unpleasant tasks.

By breaking tasks down into simpler actions and thus facilitating repetition, it also means that the human role in repetitive tasks can be taken on by humans less educated and less experienced, thus enabling these tasks to be performed by those in countries who have not previously been drawn into advanced economic participation - China, Vietnam, and so on, contributing to the spread of wealth creation ultimately to all parts of the world.

A further advantage of repetition is that many small initiatives can refine the repetitions to ever greater degrees of repeatability. This has led to the high quality products and systems for which Japan is renowned, where by repeating and refining actions (repetition with modification, along the lines of Darwinian evolution) we can end up with products which themselves carry on repeating the actions they are intended to perform in a much longer series than other products.

On the other hand, each repetition series has to start with a new action that is not, when performed, a member of a series. So, although there will be far fewer unique or initiating actions than repeated actions, they perform a role of fundamental importance: without them there would be no repetitive actions.

It is important to differentiate between unique actions, that are not the first in a series, and initiating actions that start a series. Some unique actions are deliberately so. There is only one St Paul's Cathedral, for example. Unique actions are necessary for business, and can be used to execute a one-off fundamental shift in the way in which business is carried out. As such, unique actions should be entered into with care and contemplation.

Alternatively, some unique actions are intended to be the initiating action of a series, but for some reason they remain a single action rather than a member of a series. Often this is because of the failure of that action to bring about the intended result. Many new initiatives fail in business, far more so comparatively than single actions in a repetitive series.

Darwinian evolution is brought to mind here, where maybe millions of single events (mutations) take place for every event that starts a new series. We can reduce this wastefulness, but only by taking a great deal of care when deciding whether to go ahead with an intended initiating action.

It is worth bearing in mind that in biology, mutations are rare, and successful initiating actions are much rarer. Through the application of intelligence, we can increase the frequency of successful initiating actions but they are still risky actions to perform.

Another fact worth noting is that in Darwinian evolution the mutations that initiate repetition or replication are usually those that are not too far away from the normal series; the further away they are the less likely the biological entity is to have the supporting systems to cope with the change. In the same way, the more radical the unique action, the greater the likelihood of failure.

It should be obvious that, in successful businesses, the number of intended-but-not-carried-out actions should in general be much higher than the number of unique actions carried out, because actions will be abandoned more readily before they are actually carried out if they look like failing.

Another lesson from Darwinian evolution is that mutations are more likely to be successful when they are created during a time of rapid environmental change; in the same way, businesses should be ready to take more radical and a greater number of unique actions when in a time of rapid economic or political change.

The Human Dimension of Repetitive Action

The human dimension of repetition can be divided into two types: repetition that we have no choice about, and repetition that we choose.

In the first category, human beings are subject to many repetitious events. At the most basic level, we are subject to biological repetitions on a daily basis - waking/sleeping, hunger/eating, and so on. Much of our lives are defined by our immersion in biological activities which repeat from as often as second by second (heart beats) to whole-life repetition (where we each repeat, for example, the cycle of birth, growth, maturity, decline and death only once, but this cycle is repeated in all of us).

We also spend much of our lives combating or managing our biological repetitions - trying to extend, for example, the whole-life repetitions by exercising and diet. In fact, trying to manage our daily repetitions (diet, exercise, mental stimulation, and so on) is often a conscious attempt to control and conquer the whole-life repetition of eventual decline and death.

In the second category, human beings can be defined by our stance towards repetition. We spend most of our time repeating ourselves. Think of your routine when you get up in the morning, or your journey to work, or your favourite food. We repeat ourselves because it is more efficient to do so - it is quicker and uses fewer mental and physical resources. Think of the number of times you drive to work and have no recollection of large parts of the journey afterwards - you economise on mental resources by settling into a routine. Or even think of the first time you drove a car compared with now, and how much less mental effort is required now compared with then to perform the same tasks.

Repetition also has symbolic importance in our lives. Great state occasions, or church services, for example, are steeped in repetition of rituals that can go back hundreds of years. Also, the armed forces surround themselves by repetition (i.e. ritual). Repetition seems to mark out and enhance the significance of societally-important events and actions, and bring social cohesion; and anything important in our lives soon attracts its share of ritualised repetition.

Repetition is also used as an aid to managing anxiety and stress - repeating the same activity again and again in an attempt to exert some feeling of control over events, or in order to divert your own attention from the anxiety and stress or the events causing them. Watch people in highly stressful situations and you will see lots of repetitive behaviours taking place in order to calm nerves and displace anxiety. Think of rugby players getting ready to kick a conversion, or tennis players bouncing the ball too many times before serving.

At an extreme, the use of repetitive behaviour can tip over into Obsessive Compulsive Disorder, where more and more repetitions of more and more actions come to dominate a person's life as the person ceaselessly tries to subdue anxiety and exert control by repetition to an excessive degree.

Coming closer to work life, think of the repetition that we surround ourselves in in the workplace - rituals that we each individually indulge in and indulge in as groups. They provide a sense of reassurance and community, leading to greater commitment to the group.

Repetition, therefore, is not just a means of achieving greater efficiency; it taps into deeply ingrained impulses which can be used to improve workplace cohesion and performance. Creating rituals in order to foster cohesiveness and loyalty is one option. Taking it a step further, creating rituals to ingrain management authority (the so-called "cult of personality" option) is another.

Repetition is also useful in getting people to accept their role or lot, or to come to terms with things they were not originally happy with. It is worth noting that prisoners become used to their routine, and some of them find it very difficult to leave prison; repetition can make people accept almost anything.

In summary, repetition is one of the most powerful means of improving productivity and one of the most important tools in the armoury of a manager. Understanding the role that repetition plays in business, and applying that understanding to the way we run the business, can completely change the way in which a business is managed.

On the other hand, one of the distinctive things about human beings is that they become bored. That is, they become unhappy if a repetition series extends too long. Most animals are happy to eat the same food every day all their lives; most human societies put a premium on at least some variety in their diet, and societies with access to a wider diet often take advantage of that access. A typical supermarket will have cuisine from many parts of the world on offer, and many of the fruit and vegetables will be flown in from all over the world.

How long is too long for an extended series depends both upon the nature of the repetition and the personality of the individual concerned (and that person's ability to escape the repeated series - prisoners, presumably, learn to cope with repetition because they have little choice). Some people are happier with routine and repetition more than others.

Therefore, when managing people it is important to take into account both the nature of the series being repeated and the propensity for that series to induce extreme boredom, as well as taking into account the capability of individuals to cope with repetition.

In other words, repetition is productive and efficient for human beings up to a certain point, after which human efficiency and productivity will decline. The history of economic development shows that this is often the point when machines and computers are introduced as they keep going at maximum performance when performing endless repetitive series.

With some individuals, the decline in performance will take place earlier and will be steeper than with others. This decline can no doubt be staved off through compulsion or incentives, but not forever. Therefore, a manager needs to judge which repetitive series is reaching the point of declining efficiency for particular individuals (or classes of individual) and will adjust routines accordingly. There are many techniques available to managers to prolong the period of time before a decline in efficiency, from vetting new recruits for their boredom thresholds to introducing breaks in repetitive series and diversions to mask the repetitiveness of the tasks, switching staff between repetitive series, and so on.

In summary, therefore, repetition is a key tool of management and an abiding impulse for all people. The monitoring and regulation of repetition is one of the most important aspects of management.

The Paradox of Repetition

Despite what has been said above about the centrality of repetition in economic and human life, it is actually impossible to repeat an action. Every action we carry out will necessarily be carried out slightly differently. Every action will be performed on things that change - objects wear out, degrade in performance, and so on. The circumstances surrounding the action also change.

Every repeated action we perform in a series is different from all other ones in that series because of the position of that action within the series - we are one action closer to ceasing the series and one action further away from the start. In fact, there will always come a time when we perform an action for the last time, and often we do not know that that particular action will be performed for the last time when we do it.

Humans (and businesses) crave stability and certainty, and we often think "if only I could achieve so and so" we will have reached a point where we can rest, a point where we can be still and no longer strive in that particular way. But in fact, we are all in a state of becoming; we and the world around us are processes rather than fixed entities. For businesses this points to the fact that instability and uncertainty are permanent features, and that what we think is stable and certain will end at some point; and even the business itself will end sooner or later.

Even with the greatest products or services, target markets evolve and change (and even get bored with a company's products and services) and so over time move away from the impulse to purchase those products and services. In Darwinian terms, the ecology of biological entities is changing all the time; some changes will be conducive to the thriving of certain entities and detrimental to others. Some entities change in step with the changing ecology, others do not.

In conclusion, while the concept of repetition is fundamental to an understanding of business, and therefore fundamental to being successful in business, we should always bear in mind that repetition series always end, and as we progress from action to action along the series things do not stay the same - for us, our business, or the economy in general. Bearing this in mind is also fundamental to success in business. As Heraclitus said, "no man can step into the same river twice", for not only does the river change between steps, so does the man.

A final thought. Nietsche talked of the "eternal return"; while experts all differ in what exactly he was talking about, one thing he does seem to be saying is that we should live our lives as though (or even in the knowledge that) we will be condemned to repeat them infinitely. Therefore we should make the best of them we can, because who wants to repeat something miserable or dishonourable, or repeat a life that is a failure?

For further reading: I won't give a reading list, but just a few comments. Surprisingly little has been written about repetition in any extended fashion in philosophy, although it is a topic that comes up repeatedly (!) in the history of philosophy.

Heraclitus in the early Greek period of philosophy said that "no man can step into the same river twice", which challenges the very concept of repetition. In more modern times, Kierkegaard wrote about repetition in various places, including discussing what it would be like to take exactly the same holiday twice.

As mentioned above, Nietzsche discussed repetition in quite a few places in his works and arguably the idea of the eternal return is an underpinning concept for much of his philosophy. In the twentieth century, Gilles Deleuze has given a book-length treatment of repetition in Difference and Repetition.

And leaving philosophical books aside, the film Groundhog Day explored the theme of repetition in the form of a single day being repeated again and again.

The human corollary of repetition, boredom, has also had some philosophical treatments. And an exploration of how to manage boredom in a business context is possibly a subject for a future white paper.

© Martin Ludlow 2009

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